Reflections

It has been 13 hectic weeks and once again, the semester is coming to a close. Definitely too soon and I would miss all the learning and new insights i gain from every lesson. Although this course was pretty heavy in terms of the sheer number of assignments and thoroughly lengthy readings each week, the knowledge and new perspectives which I have gleaned through the course materials and class discussions were undoubtedly invaluable.

As the course comes to an end, I am reminded once more of Yali's question, which was put to us at the very beginning and had resounded in the back of our minds throughout the progress of the course - "Why do White men have so much cargo, while (the) black men have so little?"

Even after going through the entirety of the course materials, this remains a difficult, multi-faceted and in some ways controversial question to answer.
One could attribute it all to luck, after all the first of civilizations began in the fertile crescent and quickly spread to the Nile Valley and various parts of Afroeurasia, with the rise of farming villages and a shift in efforts towards agriculture, away from hunting-gathering. This would have freed up time and efforts of the early settlers for innovation. It was only much later that the Americas became colonized and the American/French/Industrial Revolutions followed. It seems intuitive to think that people of Africa, having been of such close proximity to the first civilisations, would have caught on the bandwagon of subsequent industrialisation and development trajectories. However, it was the Americas and Europe which led revolutionary growth and began building up their "cargo". One could say that the Americans and Europeans just "got lucky" that their countries were the first to industrialize and the colonial masters, predominantly white people, were able reap and build on these developments.

Perhaps more convincingly, one could attribute the successes of the Western countries to informed planning and change management and foresight. Just as the Video on "Who Moved My Cheese?" demonstrates, it is imperative that we be sensitive to change and prepare ourselves to be ready to receive and benefit from the change, in order to achieve progress and remain viable in today's fast-evolving world. As the video summarizes, some of the key concepts of change management are: to be constantly aware of situational developments, where one stands in relation to these developments, to actively seek out new "directions" in order to "find new cheese" and the need to be willing to let go of old, unworkable ideas in order to realize improved innovations ("old beliefs do not lead you to new cheese"). Perhaps the early colonial masters of the Americas and Europe were guided by these mindsets in pursuing development of their settlements and were thus able to attain the successes that they enjoy today.

From a hunter-gathering species, mankind has progressed to agriculture and later into an age of industrial revolution. Today, the Internet and Communications Technology and Knowledge age is upon us. In lesson 5, we discussed about the gains in productivity which we have reaped throughout the stages of our evolution - there was a gain in productivity of about 25 times when mankind shifted its efforts and focus from hunting and gathering to agriculture; there was also similarly a 25 times increase in productivity when mankind later moved into the industrial age; currently, the productivity gains that we are reaping from an ICT/knowledge revolution that is unfolding around us is only 5 times. There is great promise for more - the potential of ICT is tremendous and it is widely agreed that we are only limited insofar as the extent of our imagination in the application of this technology.

However, countries that will be able to reap the greatest benefits from these technological advancements will inevitably be those with the sufficient resources, institutions and capital outlay to fully exploit these new technology offerings. Most likely, these people would comprise the "white people" referred to by Yali. The "black people" of his hometown and in other impoverished regions of the world, however, will not have the similar resource capacities which allows them to partake in this new technology age as much as the White people are able to. Consequently, this is likely to widen the discrepancy in the amount of cargo the White people possess in comparison to that possessed by Yali's people.

Throughout the course, there was also substantial emphasis on the concept of sustainability and its implications for development. While clean and renewable technology the likes of solar power and wind power have great potential to transform our current unsustainable energy paradigm, more innovative and novel solutions are also being developed which would contribute towards greater energy-efficiency and a more sustainable way of living, going forward. The latter innovations include brilliant concepts such as underwater living and hempcrete as an alternative building material - as was covered in thorough detail by Rebekah's group in their presentation on Futuristic Buildings.

Although invariably, such a change in the way we live and conduct our daily activities is likely going to be an uncomfortable experience for many -  given its destructive nature, wherein old ideas/mindsets/attitudes/habits have to be transformed - I believe that it is a necessary process. There is no great progress without some form of "pain", this "pain" and discomfort is necessary if one were to break out of one's outdated and unworkable mould of doing things and achieve progress for the better. Hence, although there may be many discomfitting implications of rapidly moving towards sustainability, as the class has discussed - such as inconvenience in making the switch in energy generation and reliance as well as financial constraints faced by some countries in moving towards clean energy generation - this is the necessary path which we ought to pursue, in order to ensure the sustainability of this Earth for the benefit of our succeeding generations.

All in all, the course Technology and World Change has indeed broaden my perspective and exposed me to a myriad of interesting topics as well as the controversies surrounding each. I have enjoyed myself in this course, thanks in no small part to the lively class discussions and several humorous individuals in class.
I particularly enjoyed the group and individual presentations as that was when I got to learn about the application of concepts to concrete situations. The coverage by each group was also extensive and the presentations all really engaging and thought-provoking. Good job on everyone!

Lesson 10: Technology Assessment and Forecasting

Brief Overview/Summary

Today’s topic was about Technology Assessment and Forecasting – with the aim of developing a framework for understanding what is to come next.

As usual, Prof began the lesson with a few quotes:

The first was by Charles Kettering and he says: “My interest is in the future because I am going to spend the rest of my life there”. The second was an African Proverb and it states: “Tomorrow belongs to the people who prepare for it today”.

My interpretation of these two quotes is that the future is inevitable; we will all have to move forward, whether we want to or not. Thus, it would be hugely beneficial if one were prepared for what is to come, rather than be blissfully ignorant and caught off guard when it happens.

Prof also screened a short promotional video produced by Siemens about some of the megatrends in the world. I thought the video was really useful in giving a broad overview of what to expect in the near future and was rather accurate in pinpointing the various megatrends. The video highlighted 2 major changes to expect in the future – urbanisation and demographic changes. These 2 megatrends could be largely attributed to an increasing move by people from rural to urban places of living. The video also identified some of the impacts that these 2 major trends are likely to have on society: greater need for control and security; growing demand for quality healthcare; increasing scarcity of natural resources; increasing importance of mobility as a factor for improving the quality of life; and the need for sustainable infrastructure.

It is important for businesses and policymakers to keep in mind these likely impacts in drawing up strategic plans for the future in order to be well placed to manage these challenges.

Interesting observations and points

Technology forecasting is the assessment of a variety of technologies and making predictions about how they are likely to develop over time.

Technology assessment is looking at a particular technology and making predictions about how it is likely to impact the functioning of particular businesses or a particular organisation. The utility of technology assessment is more tailored to individual demands and hence more specific in focus.

Some of the drivers identified for technology assessment and forecasting include:

1.       Exponential growth in the range of new technologies with potential world changing significance

2.       The need to gain an understanding of what kinds of changes a new technology innovation might bring – in economic, social, ethical/legal, environmental and other terms

3.       The need to prioritize in deciding whether and when to invest in research and development of new innovations and technologies

4.       The need to prioritize, given limited resources, on whether and when to implement and use new innovations and technologies (for instance to decide what kind of infrastructure to implement into our society) – this is especially pertinent for developing countries

Another video that was screened – “Tracking the Future – Global Trends” which I felt was especially insightful in identifying several global trends that are to characterise the future. These trends include: a faster and more frugal world; a world that is becoming increasingly urbanised with more people moving into urban cities; the emergence of new tribes in the world – new groups of people with new interests and commonalities (e.g. the rise of the internet generation); the world becoming increasingly universal; changes which the world witnesses are constantly radical; and emerging ethical considerations.

It is also important to note that power is becoming increasingly diffused among the different societies and people in the world – it is now no longer considered to be concentrated in the hands of a few, traditionally regarded powerhouses such as the United States and the European Union. The world today sees the rise of new powers and emerging economies with huge potential for growth – such as the BRIC countries. Prof also suggested the interesting idea that the G20 countries might actually be overtaking the G8, which is an apt exemplification of how power is becoming more diffused.

Prof also touched on the importance of foresight and 2 observations which stood out to me were:

1.       The need to analyse supply and demand trends, especially in relation to the labour force. It is essential to prepare the labour force today for the challenges that are likely to be demanded of it in the future, so as to ensure the adequacy of the society’s manpower

2.       The importance of public engagement – it is necessary that there be a sharing of findings and discussions with the public on world trends and present issues in order for stakeholders to be able to develop feasible solutions and ideas for progress. An example of this can be seen in Siemens video productions for public viewing.

As for the readings for this week, I found reading 2 – “Futurology: In Perspective” – to be a rather interesting and enjoyable read. It discusses what is meant by the study of futurology – essentially the systematic forecasting of the future, especially drawing insight from present trends in society. The article explores the evolution of futurology as a discipline with fair amount of scientific rigour – it acknowledges that while futurology may not be an exact science, futurologist attempt to employ as scientific a research method as possible. They do not claim their work to be definitive of what the future holds but rather see their work as a directional guide. The article attempts to distinguish between science-fiction and futurology and discusses the relevance of futurology in the context of fast changing technological changes. It concludes that futurology is not about predicting the future alone, but about taking proactive positions towards creating desirable outcomes in the future.

Key Take-Away Points

It is important to be aware of the implications and future consequences of our actions today. For instance, in considering our developmental plans and our use of energy, we also have to take into account the impacts of our choices on the environment.

The importance of strategic planning and foresight, as is emphasized throughout this topic, to enable relevant stakeholders to keep up with rapid technological advancements in today’s world so as to remain viable.

Personal Ratings

I felt that the lesson was relatable and practical. Indeed, the future is inevitable and I couldn’t agree more that it is better to expect and be prepared for what is to come rather than plod on ignorantly and be caught off guard when radical change happens. However, I felt that the lesson was a little technical and dry, especially when the different foresight methodologies were discussed.

I would rate this lesson 7/10.

Session 9: Emerging and Future Technologies

Brief Overview/Summary
Today's lesson was about emerging and future technologies. I found this topic to be especially interesting, if a little technical, as it truly opened my eyes to what exciting promises technological development and innovation holds for the future of mankind.

There are several drivers of emerging and future technologies - unmet market opportunity and need which drives innovative solutions to meet these needs in the form of new research and development; at the other end of the causation spectrum, a driver could also be due to supply outstripping demand - the situation wherein consumers are unaware of a need until they become aware of the existence of the product and are influenced into desiring the product; thirdly, another factor may be attributed to the growing body of scientific knowledge and expanding pool of technical know-how which allows for greater insights to be drawn and subsequently, greater innovation, building on existent ideas.

Interesting Observations and Ideas

Video of The Perfect Woman:

-          Ai Robotics in Japan launched their new creation in June 2008 – an android called Lisa who is an expert at everything from cooking and cleaning to administering massage

-          The two men behind the project claimed to have developed a technology called Recognition Krax System which supposedly gives Lisa “vocal, tactile and visual recognition”

-          According to Telegraph UK, there were mixed responses to the project: sceptics are convinced it is either a scam or a promotional tool similar to the one used for I Robot, which also used a robot ordering website to generate interest; some have suggested the creation may be art – in the sense of a damning critique of women’s role in relationship; the wary point out that the technology for such a robot has yet to be devised

-          Indeed, I would think this particular project tends more to be a scam or at least an over-exaggeration of the actual capacities of the creation – the robot that was featured in their promotional appeared more like a wooden actress, certainly nothing like what one would expect of a “perfect woman”

Video of Augmented Reality:

-          The video showed how augmented reality could work via the ubiquitous platform of smartphone devices – how this new technology would augment our “reality” with a layer of useful information of the object/place, when viewed through the camera lenses and screens of our smartphones.

-          Augmented reality technology is shown to be cutting-edge technology which allows for a digitally enhanced view of the real world, connecting the user with more meaningful content in every day experience. All we would need is a mobile phone, an attached camera and software on the phone to “bring it all together”

-          Although a rather nascent technology, augmented reality does look set to make a significant impact on the consumer market:

o   IT research company Gartner predicts that smartphone and tablet sales will increase to 1.2 billion in 2013 and will top 2 billion by 2015

o   According to Juniper Research, mobile augmented reality apps will generate nearly $300million in revenues and reach $5.2 billion in 2017

o   Hidden Creative revealed a study which suggested that there is a 135% increase in likelihood that a consumer will buy a product when viewing an AR version of it, compared with looking at a still image.

o   It has been found that AR has a positive impact on value perception – a survey found that participants valued the AR product 33% higher than the non-AR product

Other interesting new and emerging technologies which Prof explored in class that I found particularly intriguing were:

-          Biotechnologies

o   Technology based on biology – involves the harnessing of cellular and biomolecular processes to develop technologies and products that help to improve our lives and the health of our planet

o   Modern biotechnology provides breakthrough products and technologies to combat debilitating and rare diseases, reduce our environmental footprint, feed the hungry and allow us to achieve cleaner and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes, among other utilities.

-          Robotics

o    Robotics involves the design, construction, operation and application of technology in robots

o   One common form of robotics is in prostheses for the disabled – e.g. a bionic limb that substitutes for an organic one which has been amputated

o   Robotics in the form of assistive technologies has immense potential to transform the lives of the disabled by allowing them to engage in activities that would have been otherwise impossible

-          Nanotechnologies

o   This technology essentially envisages the manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale

o   The potential applications of nanotechnology are boundless – molecules may be manipulate to form all sorts of shapes and combined in various forms to build materials with amazing properties such as a carbon nanotube.

-          Artificial intelligence systems

o   One example of AIS technology is in the form of intelligent wheelchairs – an assistive technology for the disabled. The intelligent wheelchair has been developed by a number of researcher groups and is designed to reduce the cognitive and physical burden on the user in navigating the chair. For instance, one design eliminates the need for the user to steer the wheelchair – the chair is programmed to travel along pre-programmed paths between specific destinations, and the user need only control start and stop functions as well as adjust the speed of travel.

-          Grid computing and new networking technologies

o   Grid computing is the linking of many individual devices, creating a distributed system with massive computational power that far surpasses the power of a handful of supercomputers

o   Grid computing looks set to change the world in the present – it is not a futuristic technology. Computational grids offer a degree of resource sharing that is deemed able to far surpass event the world-wide web and this will not only revolutionise the way in which data is accessed but also how the data is produced, consumed and stored.

o   The Siemens video is an apt and attractive demonstration of how grid computing has the potential to make our lives a lot more seamless and convenient 

Key Take-Away Points

While new technology is rapidly emerging and holds the promise of solving the world’s most pressing challenges related to a vast array of issues – such as water and food security, energy sustainability and personalized medicines – it first has to be effectively transferred from the research lab into people’s lives. What this requires, importantly, is supportive and welcoming public perception of the technologies, government regulations which are facilitative and critical investment flows.

Personally, I found the technology of grid computing to be particularly intriguing and so did a little more research on it. What I found was that even though this cutting-edge technology offers significant benefits – in an example I came across, Hewitt Associates, a global human resource outsourcer, cut the cost of running a key business application by 90% when it made the switch from mainframe to a grid; the application now even runs faster and more reliable than ever – one should still refrain from throwing caution to the wind in blindly adopting this technology. 

It appears that not every application will benefit from the parallel computing offered by a grid. Other factors that need to be taken into consideration include: security, resource management, and managerial politics. Given that grids are still a specialized technology, grid computing would be most suitable for businesses already using high-performance computing, such as financial services firms and pharmaceutical companies. There is also the threat which grid computing poses to intellectual property. As United Devices’ Kirchoff acknowledges: “high-performance computing traditionally runs on nodes that are hard to access and tightly controlled. But when you connect up non-dedicated resources like your salesperson's PC, you have to worry. You cannot have data flying all over the place that is vulnerable."

Personal ratings

I particularly enjoyed this topic and would rate the session a 9/10

Lesson 11 - Presentation week 1

Today is the second last day of the TWC course and is also the first dedicated week of presentations. 3 groups presented today, including my group which went second. The first group presented on futuristic buildings, our group presented on clean energy and the last group presented on nanotechnology.

I found the first group’s presentation greatly informative and interesting. The group explored how buildings in the future are likely to develop in a trajectory of emulating greater environmental consciousness in their designs, such as buildings underwater, buildings built entirely out of organic solar cells which can transform the building itself into a powerful energy generator, as well as buildings constructed out of hempcrete which makes them less susceptible to the elements. I found the idea of partially underwater structures which consists of sealed and buoyant living spaces which may be detached from the main structure and serve as safe havens for residents in the event of tsunamis/typhoons especially intriguing. The group had even constructed a model of such a building structure – complete with live fishes. Were such a concept to be practicably translated to reality, it would be an invaluable contribution to countries which are especially vulnerable to such natural disasters. Human casualty rates and the extent of destruction in the event of tsunamis and typhoons would be greatly reduced and the world would not need to witness similar tragic and helpless scenes of a disaster aftermaths as that unfolding in the Philippines at present (the region of Tacloban in the Philippines was completely devastated when a typhoon made landfall on 8 November 2013).

My group’s presentation was on clean energy. We covered how the use of energy by mankind has evolved over history – from the use of firewood for heating and cooking, to the advent of the steam engine and eventually the discovery of coal and other hydrocarbons mined from deep in the earth, which we came to rely heavily on to drive subsequent industrialization goals. Our group also identified the impetus for a shift to clean and sustainable energies/technology today and explored a few examples of such energies in detail – e.g. solar power, biomass and hydro-energy. We then went on to examine case studies of countries which have dabbled in clean energy technologies to a significant extent and we evaluated their successes in reducing their carbon footprints. Finally, we covered the implications which a concerted shift in energy policies towards clean technologies would bring about and considered the issues that are likely to arise and which need to be addressed in order that the full benefit of such of such a change is realised all involved.

The last group presented on nanotechnology and examined how such a small and seemingly insignificant entity can in fact have expansive, value-adding applications. Examples include the use of nanoparticles in the medical field for drug delivery and the use of nanowires to monitor patient vitals. The latter would save the patient much time and expense which he would otherwise have to invest in making physical trips down to the doctor’s. The group then went on to explore the possible economic, social, environmental and political implications of a widespread use and innovation of nanotechnology in future. One point I found particularly intriguing is the potential for nanotechnology to be harnessed in the recycling of waste materials to regenerate food. The group notes how it may be possible in future for a machine to be built which takes nanoparticles from waste material and rearranges them to create new, edible food products. This could potentially resolve the issue of world hunger by providing a novel source of food and increasing global food supply. Overall, I found the group’s presentation informative and energetic. The use of animation graphics on the website also made the site a visual feast and  pleasure to explore.

I would rate this lesson a 9/10.

Lesson 12 - Presentation week 2

Today marks the last lesson of TWC and is also the second class dedicated to presentations. There were a total of 5 presentations and they covered a broad spectrum of topics – prosthesis, trans-humanism, sex advertising, food of the future and virtual reality.

The first presentation was on prosthesis, with a particular focus on mind-controlled bionic limbs and state-of-the-art prosthesis that are used by disabled athletes to enable them to realize their athletic potential and compete with able-bodied athletes at the most elite levels. Two issues were raised by the group which I found particularly troubling/interesting. The first – that bionic limbs which do not leave finger imprints may be used by the ill-willed to commit serious crimes such as murders. This is a profound and chilling scenario to contemplate and is a apposite example of how technology may be a double-edged sword. Although the benefits of such bionic limbs are undoubtedly extensive and would transform the lives of the disabled, such innovations are also liable to misuse which could result in devastating consequences. The second – the group was of the view that disabled athletes who are fitted with advanced prosthesis are given an unfair competitive advantage over their able-bodied counterparts and should not be allowed to participate in the same events as the latter group. The group cited the example of Oscar Pistorius, who was the first double amputee to compete at the Olympics in 2012. However, what the group failed to mention was that Oscar Pistorius had not, as one might expect in the group taking issue with the unfair advantage afforded by athletic prosthesis, won the event in which he participated in – the 400m race. Pistorius had come in last in the semi-finals and was booted out of the competition. Hence, I do not think it accurate to say that disabled athletes equipped with modern prosthesis which enable them to compete in the same events as their able-bodied counterparts necessarily have a disproportionate advantage over athletes relying on their natural limbs. Disproportionate advantage should not be the basis on which disabled athletes and able-bodied athletes are completely segregated in events – many disabled athletes dream of competing on the same level as able-bodied athletes and the fact is that there are a lot more platforms and opportunities for competition for able-bodied athletes than there are specially created events for Paralympics. This issue of advantage and the actual extent that bionic limbs enhance the performance of disabled athletes should be further investigated before any conclusive assertion should be made on it and policy implemented in proceeding on such assertions.

The second group presented on trans-humanism, and some of the material covered overlapped with the first group. Essentially, the group explored the different types of assistive technologies which complement and enhance the performance of daily activities of living of the user – from bionic eyes which help the blind to regain sight, to brain pacemakers which purportedly could overcome severe brain damage in patients by awakening them using deep brain electrical stimulation. All these technologies seem to hold great promise and are indeed intriguing. If these technologies were to be made widely available and accessible, disability would become a term of the past.

The third group presented on the topic of sex advertising – how it came about, how it has evolved and how it will develop in future, with the advent of new technologies and introduction of novel platforms on which advertisements may be taken out. I felt the website created by the group to be rather blatant and explicit, although the illustrations did thoroughly drive home the points that the group sought to make – that women were being excessively objectified in some forms of advertising and how excessively photoshopped advertisements have impacted how women and men perceive themselves and the ideal body types of both gender. I felt that the points raised by the group were especially pertinent in this day and age which witnesses increasing consumption of media and advertisements that proliferate all around us. Young children and impressionable youths are increasingly drawing their beliefs and perceptions of the world from the images and ideas portrayed by the media. The consequences of this unfolding phenomenon are especially worrying and concrete and urgent measures should be taken to address them to alleviate the harmful effects of these consequences. One example as noted by the group, was how certain advertisements by established clothing retailers which portrayed violence against women and represented women as deriving pleasure from such violence, were banned in some countries. I felt that this was a very crucial and sensible move by the government. In a time when rape is deemed to be a severe criminal offence in numerous countries, violence against women cannot be tolerated, and advertisements which, whether intentionally or otherwise, normalised such acts of violence must not be allowed to register seemingly matter-of-factly in societal consciousness.

The fourth group presented essentially on the issue of food security and how it could be enhanced, especially in countries currently experiencing acute poverty. The group identified that the main problem was not a quantified lack of food, but rather, a failure of proportionate distribution of the total amount of food produced. I completely agree with the group’s proposition and findings. It is inconceivable to me how there can be so much wastage in developed countries – expansive quantities of unsold bread thrown away at the end of each day by bakeries; uneaten food at buffets simply discarded and fresh batches prepared for the next buffet timings – when there are people who can barely scrap together one decent meal a day in the poorest countries and there are millions dying of starvation and malnutrition in the world. The technology and processes which the group explored as possible promising solutions to resolve the issue of world hunger spanned a broad spectrum, from harnessing biotechnology in the production of GM food and in-vitro meat to the use of improved agricultural technologies and processes to enhance quantity and quality of yield. I also really enjoyed the interactive and innovative mode of presentation employed by the group – the group started off their presentation with a short skit illustrating the subject matter of their presentation – that of the differing circumstances faced by farmers labouring in rural regions and “farmers” in developed countries.

The last presentation was on virtual reality and the group also started off their presentation with an innovative demonstration of how virtual reality may be employed in real life. The group presented on 4 fields in which virtual reality is currently employed – that of medical, transport, military and in the virtual world. Indeed, the value and potential of this technology is extensive and mankind is only limited by his imagination. Just consider the utility and benefit of such virtual simulation in the field of transport and surgery – novices/amateurs (e.g. fighter jet pilots and surgeons) are allowed to hone their skills to a level of competence in a harmless and safe environment before they can be deemed certified to operate in actual, potentially high-risk situations. This greatly reduces the likelihood of casualty rates and moderates the steepness of learning curves, enabling improved quality of professional skill sets.

I would rate this lesson a 10/10 for being the most enjoyable and light-hearted TWC lesson of the semester. All the groups had put in much thought and effort into their presentations and incorporated really amusing antics and attempts at interacting with the class throughout their deliveries. I also learned a lot from the extensive range of topics covered.  

Session 8: Energy and World Change - Past, Present and Future

Brief overview/summary

The world is progressively transitioning from its current unsustainable energy paradigm to a future powered by entirely renewable and clean energy supply. Only by making such a transition will we be able to avoid the very worst impacts of climate change.

The impetuses for a revolutionary change in mankind’s use of energy are many, of which the following are perhaps the most pertinent:

Limited non-renewable energy resources

Supplies of cheap, conventional oil and gas are declining while our energy demands continue to increase. It is clear that our reliance on fossil fuels cannot continue indefinitely. With the world’s population projected to increase to over 9 billion over the next 40 years, “business-as-usual” is not an option.

Global warming and climate change

Even if fossil fuel supplies were infinite, we would have another compelling reason for an urgent switch to renewable energy: climate change. Hundreds of millions of people worldwide are already affected by water shortages, crop failures, tropical diseases, flooding and extreme weather events – conditions that are likely to be made worse by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gasses in the Earth’s atmosphere. The WHO estimates that climate change is already causing more than 150,000 deaths a year.

Global warming threatens the fragile balance of our planet’s ecosystems, and could consign a quarter of all species to extinction. The loss of ecological services from forests, coral reefs and other ecosystems will also have huge economic implications.

Environmental concerns

Energy companies are increasingly looking to fill the gap with unconventional sources of oil and gas, such as shale gas, oil from deep water platforms like BP’s Deepwater Horizon, or the Canadian tar sands. But these come at an unprecedented cost – and not just in economic terms. Many reserves are located in some of the world’s most pristine places – such as tropical rainforests and the Arctic – that are vital for biodiversity and the ecosystem services that we all depend on, from freshwater to a healthy atmosphere. Extracting them is difficult and dangerous, and costly to businesses, communities and economies when things go wrong.

Processing and using unconventional fossil sources produces large quantities of greenhouse gasses and chemical pollution, and puts unsustainable demands on our freshwater resources, with severe impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services.

The impetus for developing countries

A fifth of the world’s population today still has no access to reliable electricity – drastically inhibiting their chances of getting an education and earning a living, not to mention escape from the vicious cycle of poverty. As energy prices increase, the world’s poor will continue to be excluded.

At the same time, more than 2.7 billion people are dependent on traditional bioenergy (mainly from wood, crop residues and animal dung) as their main source for cooking and heating fuel. This is often harvested unsustainably, causing soil erosion and increasing the risk of flooding, not to mention threatening the biodiversity and adding to greenhouse gas emissions. Traditional stoves also present a significant health problem – according to World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates, 2.5 million women and young children die prematurely each year from inhaling their fumes. With many developing societies becoming increasingly urban, air quality in cities will decline further.

Finite and increasingly expensive fossil fuels are not the answer for developing countries. Instead, renewable energy sources offer the potential to transform the quality of life and improve the economic prospects of billions.

Reading Notes (interesting observations and Key Take-Aways)

Reading 2 addressed the issues in achieving sustainable transportation. Sustainable transportation is defined as representing the goal of ensuring that that environment, social and economic considerations are factored into decisions affecting transportation activity.

The impacts of transportation on sustainability was shown in a table:

It was noted that Sustainable planning does not necessary require tradeoffs between economic, social and environmental objectives, but rather is a matter of finding strategies that help achieve all of these objectives over the long term by increasing transportation efficiency.

Whereas conventional planning proceeds on a concept of linear transport progress, which envisions newer, faster modes of transport modes displacing older, slower modes, with the assumption that older modes are unimportant, sustainable planning envisages a parallel model. That is, a model which assumes that each mode can be useful and the goal is to create a balanced transport system that uses each mode for what it does best – this involves improvement (in all aspects – comfort, speed, safety, cost savings, etc.) to all useful modes.

Several implications of sustainable transportation were identified:

Decision making:

•             Requires a paradigm shift in the way people think and solve problems – this involves a more comprehensive analysis of impacts, consideration of a broader range of solutions and more effective pubic involvement in the planning process

•             Whereas conventional planning reflects reductionist decision making in which problems are assigned to a specialised organisation with narrowly defined responsibilities (often what results is the solutions of one agency exacerbates the problems of another), sustainability suggests that public involvement is increasingly important.

•             Some of the value of public involvement: decisions may more accurately reflect community values by giving people more opportunities to affect decisions; contribution to more equitable transportation decisions through giving disadvantaged groups more involvement in decisions that affect them; creation of increased public support for policies which require behaviour changes or sacrifices in a community.

•             However, the debate over how best to improve public involvement and what amount of such involvement is adequate for sustainability is still ongoing.

•             There is the risk of domination by either professional elite or activist groups representing special interest in such public involvement

Automobile dependency:

•             Most sustainability transport planning supports reduced automobile dependency in order to minimise the economic, social and environmental costs imposed.

•             The issues involved in the debate over automobiles is likely wider than just economic v environmental – various market distortions have been identified and recognised as contributing to excessive automobile dependency and vehicle designs that are more polluting and dangerous than optimal

•             The author posits that reducing automobile dependency will ultimately help to achieve a more sustainable transport system and reducing market distortions can help to achieve this objective.

Transportation equity:

•             Lack of guidelines to assess and evaluate transportation equity

•             Equity considerations can come in two forms – horizontal and vertical equity

•             Horizontal equity suggests that externalities of transportation should be reduced where they are specifically justified and also that the use of transportation should be appropriately priced – users ‘should get what they pay for and pay for what they get’

•             Vertical equity implies that access options should improve for people who are economically, socially and physically disadvantaged

Community liveability

•             Community liveability is a worthwhile sustainability goal in itself; it also can support other sustainable objectives such as reducing the need to travel and increasing the use of public transit

•             It addresses local environmental quality, quality of community interactions and community cohesion and the ability of the community to satisfy the basic needs of residents

•             Given that a high quality public realm forges community liveability, there is a need to improve the streetscape through creating opportunities for greater interaction and introduction of polities to encourage non-motorise transport

Land use

•             Policies which determine the use of land may influence the development of transportation patterns

•             Experts have concluded that sustainable transportation requires higher-density land use patterns that accommodate alternative modes; however non-believers argue that high density development itself imposes costs

The paper concludes by postulate various viable visions to achieving sustainable transportation:

Technical – reliance on technological innovations to solve specific sustainability problems, create wealth and increase mobility.

Demand management – involves changing travel behaviour by increasing traveller choice and through encouraging more economically efficient travel patterns.

Economic reform – creation of a more optimal transportation market by reforming transport prices and investment practices.

Alternative modes – provision of alternative modes of transport; mainly involves improvement to public transit, non-motorised transport, telecommunicating.

Land use/community design changes – changing land use patterns to reduce travel distances and increase mode choice.

Reading 3 was a 2010 World Energy Council assessment of country-specific energy and climate policies and their implications for sustainability. It identified that there were 3 fundamental issues that required to be addressed today:

Security of supply

There is a need to invest in new sources and infrastructure to meet demand. The recent financial crisis has negatively affected some investment plans and the recent surge in oil and commodity prices may curb growth.

Environmental protection and climate change

The energy sector is responsible for 60% of global greenhouse gas emissions and much of regional and urban air pollution, hence it is clearly on the front to address climate change. Also, in a time where more people are moving from rural to urban cities, air quality is a major concern.

Equity

Energy goes in concert with development – there is a need to prevent the creation or exacerbation of inequalities within and across countries. There is a need to work towards a sustainable solution which reconciles economic growth, protection of the environment and greater energy equity among peoples.

Existing concerns include:

Although energy resources are not a major constraint, the issue is with their uneven distribution across nations and the fact that ensuring energy supply security will lead to an increase in energy prices.

The energy industry will need to venture further afield, in untapped areas, and employ ever more sophisticated technologies to tap the remaining available resources. Concurrently, there is the need to adhere to the highest standards of safety.

The real shortage today relates to governance. There is a dearth of effective rule and smart policy frameworks to update our existing energy policies and ensure the right resources and technologies are available in the right place, at the right time and at the right price.

Innovation in terms of policies, institutions and governance is just as important as technological innovation going ahead.

The need for new energy governance has been recognized by Copenhagen, as evidenced by the shift from top-down approach of Kyoto to bottom-up approach based on national commitments – in the form of the Copenhagen Accord. The energy sustainability policy has been put at the centre of the sustainability debate. The challenge now is to design sound and effective public policies to deliver the national objectives that have been adopted by more than 80 countries.

Reading 6 was a report from the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and discussed the concept of achieving 100% renewable energy by 2050.

The report cited 10 recommendations for a 100% renewable energy future:

1.            Clean energy: promote only the most efficient products; develop existing and new renewable energy sources to provide enough clean energy for all by 2050

2.            Grids: share and exchange clean energy through grids and trade, making the best use of sustainable energy resources in different areas

3.            Access: end energy poverty – provide clean electricity and promote sustainable practices, such as efficient cook stoves, to everyone in developing countries

4.            Money: invest in renewable, clean energy and energy-efficient products and buildings

5.            Food: stop food waste; choose food that is sourced in an efficient and sustainable way to free up land for nature, sustainable forestry and biofuel production; everyone has an equal right to healthy levels of protein in their diet – for this to happen, wealthier people need to eat less meat.

6.            Materials: reduce, reuse, recycle – to minimize waste and save energy; develop durable materials and avoid things we don’t need

7.            Transport: provide incentives to encourage greater use of public transport and reduce the distances people and goods travel; promote electrification whenever possible and support research into hydrogen and other alternative fuels for shipping and aviation.

8.            Technology: develop national, bilateral and multilateral action plans to promote R&D in energy efficiency and renewable energy

9.            Sustainability: develop and enforce strict sustainability criteria that ensure renewable energy is compatible with environmental and development goals

10.          Agreements: support ambitious climate and energy agreements to provide global guidance and promote global cooperation on renewable energy and efficiency efforts

Personal ratings

I would rate this session a 9/10.

Individual Paper - Assistive Technology for the Physically Disabled

Assistive Technology for the Physically Disabled[1]

Grace Tay Lay Ting (grace.tay.2011@law.smu.edu.sg), 3^rd Year student, Bachelor of Laws, Singapore Management University

Executive summary

This paper examines how the use of assistive technologies can and have markedly transformed the lives of the physically disabled. It will explore the trend in assistive technology development as well as identify the implications which might arise from the growth of the assistive technology market.

This paper will focus on two major categories of assistive technology– assistive technology which enhance mobility and assistive technology which augment communication. These two categories are chosen as the author believes that the basic touchstones to a respectable quality of life are essentially the ability to interact with others and exert control over the external environment.

1          Introduction

"When you have a disability, knowing that you are not defined by it is the sweetest feeling." –  Anne  Wafula Strike (Anne Wafula Strike, 2010)

Born in Kenya, Anne Wafula Strike was struck down with polio at the age of 2. The debilitating disease left her paralyzed from the waist down. Fast-forward to the year 2004, Anne became the first Kenyan wheelchair racer to represent her country at the Athens Paralympics. Today, she is a British Paralympic wheelchair racer and a Sporting Ambassador.

All her sporting achievements would not have been possible without the advent of the racing wheelchair. Marvelling over the empowerment which her wheelchair has granted her, Anne reveals in a clip which won BBC’s ‘My Story’ competition: “(the) first time I got my racing chair, which was custom-made for me…I was ecstatic because I could go at speed, something that I had never been able to do, ever ever in my life”. (Anne Wafula Strike, 2010)

1.1       Physical disability

Physical disability is the situation in which the individual’s voluntary movements are inhibited due to the impairments in his/her skeletal or neuromuscular systems. Disability can be said to result “when environmental demands exceed an individual’s mobility resources (and thus restricts his/her) participation (in the environment)”. (Rachel E. Cowan et al, 2012)

For those who are afflicted with severe disorders which incapacitate their neuromuscular system, the individual may lose all (or retain very minimal) control over voluntary muscular movements. In the most extreme cases, the individual may be said to suffer from “lock in” syndrome, unable to communicate with the outside world in any way.

1.2       Assistive Technology

Borrowing from the definition of assistive technology as codified in the United States Assistive Technology Act 1998, an assistive technology is any “item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities or individuals with disabilities”. (Assistive Technology Act, 1998)

Assistive technology is therefore used to augment the daily activities of living of disabled users.

2          Historical Perspectives

For people with physical disabilities, the advent of modern assistive technologies have not only changed, but revolutionised the way they live and learn. The capacities made possible by assistive devices today allow them to accomplish tasks which would have been unfathomable to their counterparts years ago.

The history of modern assistive technology does not go very far back however. According to Suzanne Robitaille (2010), the pioneers of early assistive technologies are still alive today. Gregg Vanderheiden, who had developed the Auto-corn in the 1970s, is now a resident professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and is currently working on expanding the accessibility of the Internet to disabled users.

In the United States, the rise of assistive technology can traced to the pre-computer era, particularly the aftermath of World War II. The great number of veterans disabled by war-time wounds posed a worrying social problem and prompted the US Veterans Administration to launch a prosthetic and sensory aids program. This was later reinforced by various initiatives commencing modern research into rehabilitation and assistive technology. (Suzanne Robitaille, 2010)

Assistive technology has come to be recognised today as being of immense importance to augmenting the daily activities of living of the physically disabled. A person with a disability should aim not necessarily at mere body normality, but instead at life normality.

3          Current Situation

Today, numerous assistive devices exist on the market to empower people with disability needs ranging from the mild to the severe. These technologies encompass the low-tech, such as a walking cane or a conventional manual wheelchair, to something as multifarious and complex as a bionic limb or brain-computer interface technology.

Some of the most commonly employed assistive technology devices today include those that are simple to use and minimally costing, such as the mouth stick and the head wand. The former allows individuals with no control over his hands to manipulate a stick-like device using his mouth to type on a computer or control a trackball mouse to navigate more complex interfaces. The head wand performs a similar function, with the difference being that the stick is strapped to the head. This model may be more practical and/or less tiring for some users. (Motor Disabilities: Assistive Technologies)

For persons with very limited mobility, a single-switch access device is available, which may be incorporated into other assistive technology to allow the user to manipulate the device by clicking on the switch. For instance, a person with only constructive control over head movements can have the switch placed to the side of his head for easy activation. (Motor Disabilities: Assistive Technologies)

Another alternative technology for individuals who have little or no control over voluntary movements, is the eye-tracking device. The device works by tracking movements of the user’s eyes to navigate through software interfaces and enables the user to access a computer or type words on a screen. For those who are unable to engage in meaningful verbal communication, this technology represents a powerful speech assistive device which gives them a ‘voice’. (Motor Disabilities: Assistive Technologies)

Prosthetic limbs are another form of assistive technology and they have a great potential to bring about ‘destructive’, immensely transformative changes to lives of the physically disabled, allowing many to fully realise their physical potentials.

An outstanding example of such an individual is Oscar Pistorius, a South African Paralympic runner who had both his lower legs amputated when he was a baby, after he was born without fibula bones in his shin. Equipped with advanced running prosthesis, Pistorius went on to make sporting history as the first double-amputee to compete at the 2012 London Olympics against non-disabled athletes. (Paul Kelso, 2012) Another stellar example alluded to at the start of this paper is Anne Wafula Strike, Figure 1. Oscar Pistorius at the 2012 London Olympics           a British Wheelchair racer.

Reproduced from The Telegraph. (2012)

Were it not for both athletes’ prosthesis, neither would have been able to fulfil their tremendous potentials as elite athletes.

Another technology which has been greatly transformative for persons who suffer from complete paralysis of the body (“locked in”) is brain-computer interface (BCI) technology. BCI contemplates the “(harnessing of) electroencephalographic activity (EEG) or other electrophysiological measures of brain function (to) provide an alternative, non-muscular channel for sending messages and commands to the external world”. (J.R. Wolpaw et al., 2002)

Figure 2 shows an instance of how BCI technology may be incorporated and utilized. J.R. Wolpaw et al. (2002) explains how this BCI system works: “Signals from the brain are acquired by electrodes on the scalp or in the head and processed to extract specific features (e.g. amplitudes of evoked potentials, firing rates of cortical neurons) that reflect the user’s intent. These features are translated into commands that operate a device (e.g. a simple word processing program, a wheelchair, or a neuroprosthesis). Success depends on the interaction of the two adaptive controllers of user and system. The user must develop and maintain good correlation between his or her intent and the signal features employed by the BCI; and the BCI must select and extract features that the user can control and must translate those features into device commands correctly and efficiently.”

Figure 2. BCI System

Reproduced from J.R. Wolpaw et al., (2002)

Over the past 15 years, BCI research has expanded, fuelled by greater understanding of how the human brain works, the proliferation of inexpensive computer equipment and growing acknowledgment of needs as well as potentials of people with disabilities. However, the efficacy of BCI technology currently is hampered by slow information transfer rates. As J.R. Wolpaw et al. (2002) astutely observes: “the future value of BCI technology will depend substantially on how much this transfer rate can be increased”.

4          Future Considerations

4.1       Trend of assistive technology advancement

In the past, assistive technology devices are often assembled sums of varied, discrete pieces of technology parts. Each part came equipped with its own switch mechanism, power supply, control device and mounting mechanism. Not surprisingly, this often led to user confusion and a high cost of maintenance of the entire device. (P. Nisbet, 1996) The complexity of such assistive technologies also made it inaccessible to the severely disabled.

Thus, the challenge to provide practical solutions to this group of disabled users has given rise to the present trend towards a more seamless integration in the functionality of assistive devices, with fewer attendant control options.

According to Rachel E. Cowan et al. (2012), this trend is best evinced in the development of four key assistive technologies – the powered wheelchair, prosthetic limbs, functional electrical stimulation, and wearable exoskeletons – of which the first two will be further elaborated upon by this paper, for the reason that they are two of the most commonly employed assistive devices.

4.1.1    Powered Wheelchair

A ‘shared control’ model is being explored in the development of powered wheelchairs. This entails the elimination of mode changes between different functionalities of the wheelchair. As mode changes can impose a substantial mental burden on the user if he/she suffers additionally from a cognitive impairment, this development could lead to improved device accessibility and user-friendliness. A shared control approach envisages greater integration of the user and the machine.

For instance, the Collaborative Wheelchair Assistant (CWA) developed by a research group at London’s Imperial College seeks to minimise the control required of the user by incorporating a self-navigation system into the powered wheelchair. Pre-programmed paths are encoded into the wheelchair interface and the user need only manage controls for obstacle avoidance and speed changes. This greatly reduces the mental load placed on the user in having to be constantly cognisant of wheelchair navigation. (Burdet E. et al., 2009)

Another approach seeks to better exploit the user’s inherent capabilities for controlling the wheelchair via the use of a body part interface. This approach eliminates the need for a physical interface by allowing information from any part of the user’s body to be mapped to sensors which can then be manipulated for wheelchair control. This greatly improves the accessibility of the powered wheelchair to severely disabled users, as any body part with the greatest range of motion can be employed to steer the wheelchair. (Casadio M et al., 2010)

Yet another method capitalizes on the user’s innate capacities to engage his brain, through the use of BCI technology to capture and translate intentions from brain electrical activity into real-time wheelchair navigation. This involves the development of a “shared control system” whereby the “computer ‘drives’ the chair between destinations using pre-programmed paths while the user monitors the (pathway) for unexpected obstacles” (Berger TW et al., 2008), not unlike the concept contemplated by the CWA.

4.1.2    Prosthetic limb control

In the area of prosthetic limb control, researchers in Europe have come up with 3 novel approaches, all of which envisages greater interfacing of the user and their prosthetic.

The computer-vision enhanced control (Dosen S. et al., 2010) essentially utilises camera software to estimate the nature and dimensions of grasp control required of an object and feeds this information to the attached prosthetic hand. The user is only required to activate, aim and orientate the hand in line with the object of choice. This enhances the autonomy of prosthetics and reduces user burden.

The peripheral nervous system interface (Micera S. et al., 2010) seeks to tap into the nervous system responsible for transmitting information between the brain and the users’ limbs to control the substituted prosthetic. Results of studies into this technology show that it is even possible to manipulate the nature of the prosthetic grip by adjusting the number of interface electrodes. This approach has been recognised as highly user-intuitive given that a pathway is provided for sensory feedback between the user and his prosthesis.

The last innovation identified is the kinematic/kinetic control system which provides for greater synchronisation between the prosthesis and the remaining, normally functioning limbs. Researchers of the Sensory Motor Systems laboratory at ETH Zurich have developed a complementary limb motion estimation (CLME) technology which harnesses the “physiological inter-joint couplings of the intact leg to instantaneously determine (and consequently drive) the motion required of the prosthetic leg”. (Vallery H. et al., 2011) This technology potentially broadens the range of motion of the prosthesis and gives the user greater, more intuitive freedom of movement.

4.2       Encouraging continued research and development in assistive technology

With the growing recognition of the valuableness of assistive technology for the disabled, there is a need to ensure continued innovation and development in this area. For instance, further research and innovation is needed to raise the information transfer rates of BCI technology, in order that the benefit of the technology can be fully exploited.

National and state governments can play a crucial role in facilitating research and development efforts. This can be done through the provision of incentives for companies to set up research bases in the country and by reducing regulatory red-tape. Grants can also be provided by the government to encourage and facilitate collaboration between companies and institutes of higher learning, to allow for wider pools of innovative ideas to be tapped.

Further, intellectual property laws should be strengthened in order to ensure that new innovations will receive adequate property rights protection. This would go towards helping to create a conducive and attractive environment for investment in assistive technology research and development.

4.3       Addressing the fragmentation of the assistive technology market

Currently, there is a lack of collaboration and consultation between the various stakeholders of the assistive technology industry (researchers, clinicians, marketers, consumers, etc.) in the larger markets such as Europe and America. In the European Union, this has been attributed to the differences in geographical, cultural and political situations amongst the states and the lack of a common platform for the facilitation of such collaboration. (Christian Buhler and Richard Barbera, 2011) However, in order to achieve the above-mentioned goals of greater integration and to enable the benefits of innovation to be fully exploited as well as ensure that innovation meet the needs and expectations of users, it is essential to bring about greater collaboration.

This can be done through establishing common platforms on which greater interaction and dialogue can take place between the stakeholders. Such platforms can come in the form of an association with the various stakeholders as members or possibly through forum initiatives set up by individual stakeholder groups.

In order to ensure that new developments in assistive technology meet the needs of consumers, the author believes that it is essential to involve users in the development/innovation process. This is as disabled persons themselves are conceivably the best candidates to provide design specifications for what is meant by ‘intuitive’, ‘seamless’, and ‘non-obtrusive’ technologies. (Rachel E. Cowan et al., 2010)

Hence, it is pertinent to encourage and facilitate such user involvement. Presently, developers are disinclined to engage end-users in the development process due to inconvenience and resource-efficiency concerns. In the United Kingdom for example, the presence of medical directives presents a disincentive. The directives require that ethical approval must first be obtained before users may be involved in the testing of devices. This entails considerable paperwork and time which developers, especially those from small companies, may wish to avoid and they may ultimately elect not to involve users in the design and development process. (Avril D. McCarthy (2012). Regulatory influences on assistive technology innovation: Enabling or disabling? Technology and Disability, 24, 205-210.)

There is a need to raise awareness of the value of user-consultation in the development of assistive technology. This may be done through awareness campaigns, incentive grants to encourage companies to involve disabled users as participants in testing out devices, or through reforms of existing laws where necessary/realistic.

4.4       Ensuring the availability and affordability of assistive technology

Ultimately, the purpose and value of assistive technology advancements are only fulfilled when the benefits of such technology may be enjoyed the target user groups. Hence, affordability and accessibility of such assistive technology should be made a primary concern. The less well-off must not be denied of an opportunity to lead a higher quality of life simply due to financial disadvantages.

Fortunately, most countries do have in place policies which seek to ensure that those who require assistive technologies will have access to them. In Singapore, the Assistive Technology Fund provides financial assistance for the purchase of assistive devices by disabled users attending mainstream education and employment. (SG Enable, 2013) Similarly, the governments of the United States, United Kingdom and Switzerland provide grants to the disabled for the purchase of assistive technologies. In Canada, the government has done away with the tax requirement for disabled persons in the purchase of such devices. (PRWeb (USA), 2013)

5          Conclusion

In summary, assistive technology has come to be recognized as representing great transformative potential and essential to augmenting the quality of life of the physically disabled. Assistive technology takes numerous forms, the most common of which is the powered wheelchair and prosthesis, as well as increasingly, BCI technology incorporated into assistive hardware. The rise of utility of the latter is fuelled in part by growing understanding of brain functions as well as rapid advances in the area of information and communications technology.

Modern advancements in assistive technology reflect a trend towards greater integration of systems, with increasing interfacing between user and device, leading to a reduction in user operational burden. Also, developers are becoming cognizant that their innovations should be made compatible with existing assistive devices on the market in order to achieve greater applicability and accessible of their products. However, notwithstanding the general shift towards the creation of comprehensive integrated systems however, it is pertinent to realize that no one-size-fits-all model can be employed in assistive technology. The sheer variety and uniqueness of individual capabilities and extent of disabilities must be taken into account in prescribing the most appropriate form of assistive technology.

The future implications of assistive technology advances include the need to address the present undesirable fragmentation of the industry, in order to remedy the problem of functionality of new developments falling short of users’ needs and expectations; and the importance of ensuring accessibility and affordability of assistive technologies in order that disabled users are able to reap the extensive transformative benefits of such technology.  

All things considered, the future is an especially exciting one for the physically disabled, whose lives await radical transformation by new assistive technology innovations.

6          References

Anne Wafula Strike (2010). BBC My Story – In My Dreams I Dance. Retrieved from http://annewafulastrike.blogspot.sg/2010/09/bbc-my-story-in-my-dreams-i-dance.html.

Assistive Technology Act of 1998. Pub. L. No. 108-364, §2432,112 Stat. 3627.

Berger TW, Chapin JK, Gerhardt GA, McFarland DJ, Principe JC, Soussou WV, et al. (2008). Brain-Computer Interfaces: An International Assessment of Research and Development Trends. World Technology Evalution Center, 2008, 1–281.

Burdet E, Zeng Q, Teo CL (2009). Evaluation of a collaborative wheelchair system in cerebral palsy and traumatic brain injury users. Neurorehabil Neural Repair, 23(5), 494–504.

Casadio M, Pressman A, Fishbach A, Danziger Z, Acosta S, Chen D, et al. (2010). Functional reorganization of upper-body movement after spinal cord injury. Exp Brain Res, 207(3–4), 233–247.

Christian Buhler and Richard Barbera (2011). Assistive technology industry: A field for cooperation and networking. Technology and Disability, 23, 115-130.

Dosen S, Cipriani C, Kostic M, Controzzi M, Carrozza MC, Popovic DB (2010). Cognitive vision system for control of dexterous prosthetic hands: experimental evaluation. J Neuroeng Rehabil, 7, 42.

Figure 1. Oscar Pistorius at the 2012 London Olympics, finishing last in 400m. (2012, August 6). Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/athletics/9454624/Oscar-Pistorius-knocked-out-of-London-2012-Olympics-but-his-achievements-will-resound-for-years-to-come.html.

Figure 2. Graphic representation of the use of brain-computer interface technology. Retrieved from Jonathan R. Wolpaw, Niels Birbaumer, Dennis J. McFarland, Gert Pfurtscheller, and Theresa M. Vaughan (2002). Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control. Clinical Neurophysiology, 113, 767-791.

Jonathan R. Wolpaw, Niels Birbaumer, Dennis J. McFarland, Gert Pfurtscheller, and Theresa M. Vaughan (2002). Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control. Clinical Neurophysiology, 113, 767-791.

Micera S, Citi L, Rigosa J, Carpaneto J, Raspopovic S, Di Pino G, et al. (2010). Decoding information from neural signals recorded using intraneural electrodes: toward the development of a neurocontrolled hand prosthesis. Proc IEEE, 98(3), 407–417.

Motor Disabilities: Assistive Technologies. Retrieved from http://webaim.org/articles/motor/assistive.

Paul Kelso (2012, August 6). Oscar Pistorius knocked out of London 2012 Olympics but his achievements will resound for years to come. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/athletics/9454624/Oscar-Pistorius-knocked-out-of-London-2012-Olympics-but-his-achievements-will-resound-for-years-to-come.html.

P. Nisbet (1996). Integrating assistive technologies: current practices and future possibilities. Med. Ng. Phys., 18(3), 193-202.

PRWeb (USA) (2013, October 25). Global Elderly and Disabled Assistive Devices Market is Expected to Reach USD 19.68 Billion in 2019: Transparency Market Research. PRWeb (USA).

Rachel E. Cowan, Benjamin J Fregly, Michael L Boninger, Leighton Chan, Mary M Rodgers, and David J Reinkensmeyer (2012). Recent trends in assistive technology for mobility. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, 9, 20-29.

SG Enable (2013, July 1). Assistive Technology Fund. Retrieved from http://www.sgenable.sg/Schemes__Assistive-Technology-Fund.aspx.

Suzanne Robitaille (2010). The Illustrated Guide to Assistive Technology. New York: Demos Medical Publishing.

Vallery H, Burgkart R, Hartmann C, Mitternacht J, Riener R, Buss M (2011). Complementary limb motion estimation for the control of active knee prostheses. Biomed Tech (Berl), 56(1), 45–51.

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[1] This paper was peer reviewed by Joseph Tam Chun Kit and Tan Ho Yee.